European hand papermaking developed alongside the spread of paper mills from the Iberian Peninsula northward during the 13th and 14th centuries. By the 15th century, mills in Germany, France, and the Low Countries were producing sheet paper using methods that have changed little in their fundamentals. Several workshops in Poland, Switzerland, and the Netherlands maintain working examples of these methods today.
The Mould and Deckle
The core tool of Western hand papermaking is the mould: a rigid wooden frame strung with parallel wires (laid wires) supported by crossed wires (chain lines), or woven wire cloth (wove moulds). The deckle is a removable frame placed on top of the mould to contain pulp during sheet formation.
Laid moulds produce sheets with the characteristic pattern of parallel lines visible when paper is held to light. This pattern, known as watermarks when intentional wire designs are added to the mould surface, is a defining feature of historical European papers. The Basler Papiermühle in Switzerland maintains an extensive collection of historical moulds and produces new moulds to traditional specifications.
Wire Construction
Traditional moulds used brass wire, twisted by hand onto the wooden ribs. Modern reproduction moulds typically use stainless steel wire, which resists corrosion and maintains tension more consistently over time. The density of laid wires — typically 20 to 28 lines per centimetre in historical papers — influences how rapidly water drains during sheet formation and affects the surface texture of the finished sheet.
Vatman Practice
The vatman is the craftsperson responsible for forming sheets at the vat. The process involves dipping the mould and deckle into a dilute suspension of pulp in water, raising it horizontally, and shaking it in a controlled motion — forward and back, then side to side — while water drains through the wire surface. This shaking action, known as the vatman's shake or the eastern shake depending on direction, interlocks fibres in multiple directions and contributes to the sheet's dimensional stability.
The consistency of the pulp suspension (the furnish) determines how much fibre is deposited per unit area and thus the weight of the finished sheet. Vatmen typically work with furnish diluted to between 0.3% and 1% fibre content by weight, adjusting concentration based on the target sheet weight and the fibre type in use.
Key Terminology
Furnish — the dilute pulp suspension in the vat. Formation — the distribution of fibres in a finished sheet. Couching — transferring a freshly formed sheet from mould to felt. Post — a stack of alternating felts and wet sheets ready for pressing.
Couching and Pressing
After formation, the wet sheet is transferred from the mould onto a dampened felt in a process called couching (from the French coucher, to lay down). The sheet is rolled off the mould onto the felt with a rocking motion that avoids distortion. Multiple felt-sheet pairs are stacked into a post, which is then placed in a screw or hydraulic press to extract water.
First pressing — sometimes called the wet press — removes roughly half the remaining water. The sheets are then separated from the felts and pressed again (the dry or hard press) after partial air drying. The number of pressing cycles and the pressure applied influence surface smoothness: more pressing produces a harder, smoother surface.
Drying Methods
European craft papermakers dry sheets by pasting them onto wooden boards (spurs) or hanging them on horsehair ropes in a heated loft. Drying on boards under tension produces a flatter sheet with less cockling. Air drying on ropes allows slight dimensional movement and is characteristic of papers intended for printing or writing where a degree of surface variation is acceptable.
Temperature and humidity during drying affect how fibres bond as they dry and how the sheet responds to moisture in subsequent use. Papers intended for archival storage are typically dried slowly in controlled conditions to minimise internal stress.
Contemporary European Workshops
Several European workshops continue producing paper by hand. The Papiermühle Homburg in the Saar region, the Papeterie de Grosbois in Burgundy, and the Miliani Fabriano facility in Italy (founded in the 13th century) all produce limited quantities of handmade paper alongside machine production. In Poland, the Duszniki-Zdrój mill operates as a working museum and participates in annual papermaking demonstrations.
Documentation of these workshops is maintained through the International Association of Hand Papermakers and Paper Artists (IAPMA), which records techniques, workshops, and material practices across member countries.